In this guide
How contamination reaches people
Source · pathway · receptorA chemical in the ground is only a health risk if it can reach someone. Environmental health scientists map every site as a source, a pathway and a receptor. Break any link and the risk falls away.
The six exposure routes
| Route | How it happens | Typical contaminants |
|---|---|---|
| Swallowing soil & dust | Hand-to-mouth contact, dust tracked indoors, unwashed produce | Arsenic, lead, organochlorines, PAHs |
| Eating home-grown food | Leafy greens and root crops take up metals; eggs and beef concentrate fat-loving chemicals | Cadmium, lead, DDT, dieldrin, PFAS |
| Breathing | Vapours rising into buildings; fibres and dust released by digging, mowing or demolition | Benzene, solvents, asbestos, radon |
| Drinking water | Bores, dams and roof tanks fed by contaminated groundwater, runoff or dust | Nitrate, pathogens, PFAS, hydrocarbons, lead |
| Skin contact | Gardening, earthworks, wading in drains and creeks | Hydrocarbons, pesticides |
| External radiation | Spending long periods over radioactive mineral sand residues | Thorium, uranium and decay products |
How contaminated land is regulated in NSW
State & local frameworkIn NSW, councils must be satisfied that land is suitable for its proposed use, or can be made suitable, before they approve a rezoning or development.
| Instrument | What it does |
|---|---|
| SEPP (Resilience and Hazards) 2021, Chapter 4 | Requires councils to consider contamination when assessing development applications and rezonings. Replaced SEPP 55. |
| Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 | The NSW EPA regulates sites posing a significant risk of harm; landowners and polluters have a duty to notify certain contamination. |
| ASC NEPM (1999, amended 2013) | The national method for site investigation, with health and ecological investigation levels for soil and groundwater. |
| PFAS NEMP 3.0 (2025) | National PFAS guidance and guideline values for soil, water, biota, biosolids and recovered wastes. |
| UPSS Regulation 2019 | Design, leak detection and reporting rules for underground fuel tanks. Councils have regulated most sites since 1 September 2019. |
| Byron Shire Council | Requires a Contaminated Land Summary Table with every contamination report, and specialist investigation of land that may have been sand mined. |
| Ballina Shire Council | Policy C12 Management of Contaminated Land, adopted March 2024. |
| Northern Rivers Contaminated Land Program | Regional council partnership supported by the NSW EPA, with shared templates and factsheets, including heavy mineral sands radiation. |
| Land-use guidelines | NSW EPA guidelines for banana plantation sites (1997), cattle tick dip sites (1996) and former orchards and market gardens (2005). |
Our local land-use legacy
Where contamination is foundMost contamination in the Byron and Ballina Shires traces back to a handful of historical land uses. Aerial photographs back to the 1940s, title searches, council records and the memories of people who worked the land tell us where to look.
Cattle tick dip sites
Signature Northern Rivers legacycattle dip sites are recorded across the far North Coast of NSW, many now on lifestyle and residential blocks. Of these, 254 have been demolished, and 29 of those now have homes built over them.
For much of the twentieth century, cattle were swum through plunge baths of tickicide to control cattle tick. Arsenic was used until 1955, when ticks became resistant; DDT followed until 1962. Since then much less persistent chemicals have been used, including organophosphates such as ethion and, today, amitraz in eradication programs. When chemicals changed, old dip fluid was treated with lime and the sludge buried beside the bath, or the liquid was pumped out over the yard.
- Arsenic
- DDT, DDD, DDE
- Other organochlorines
- Ethion
- Organophosphates
- Where we look
- The bath and its surrounds, the draining pen, splash zone, sludge pits, drains, dam sediments and any low ground that runoff and eroded soil have reached.
- How to check
- The NSW DPI Cattle Dip Site Locator maps known sites. Old concrete baths and yards show clearly in historical aerial photographs.
Former banana plantations
Hinterland slopesSteep, north-facing slopes across the Byron and Ballina hinterland grew bananas for much of the twentieth century. Many are now house sites, rural-residential subdivisions, macadamia or blueberry farms. Weeds were commonly treated with lead arsenate and then arsenic pentoxide, and organochlorines including dieldrin, aldrin, heptachlor and DDT were used against pests such as banana weevil borer.
- Arsenic
- Dieldrin & aldrin
- Heptachlor
- DDT
- Lead
- Copper & zinc
- Where we look
- Two patterns: broad, low-level residues across the growing area, and hotspots at packing sheds, chemical stores and mixing areas. Eroded soil also builds up in dams and gullies downslope.
Dieldrin concentrates in the top 75 mm of soil and arsenic in the top 150 mm, so NSW EPA banana plantation guidelines sample at those depths. Surface soil is exactly what gardens and play areas expose.
Sugar cane & floodplain cropping
Lower Richmond floodplainBallina Shire's floodplain has grown sugar cane since the nineteenth century. Historical organochlorines (BHC, dieldrin and heptachlor against cane grub), herbicides such as atrazine and diuron, and fertiliser metals can remain in soils and drain sediments, with fuel and chemicals stored around farm sheds.
- BHC / lindane
- Dieldrin
- Atrazine
- Diuron
- Cadmium
- Acid sulfate soils
Orchards, macadamias & market gardens
Alstonville Plateau & hinterlandMacadamias, avocados, coffee, stone fruit, citrus, tea tree, vegetables and now blueberries. Older orchards used lead arsenate and mercury fungicides; copper and zinc sprays are still common; organochlorines and organophosphates were widely used before modern products.
- Lead arsenate
- Copper
- Zinc
- Mercury
- Endosulfan
- Organophosphates
- Where we look
- Surface soil under trees and in former rows, chemical sheds, mixing and wash-down areas, spray-rig fill points, farm dams and their sediments.
Dairies, piggeries & grazing
The old Byron economyDairying supplied butter factories at Byron Bay and Mullumbimby. Old dairy sites can hold dip and spray chemicals, fuel and oil around bowsers, nutrients and pathogens from effluent ponds, and asbestos and lead paint in sheds and bails.
- Arsenic & OCPs
- Hydrocarbons
- Nutrients
- Pathogens
- Asbestos
- Lead paint
Heavy mineral sand mining
Coastal dunes · Byron BayParts of Byron Shire were mined for rutile, zircon and ilmenite through much of the twentieth century, and sands were processed in Byron Bay itself. Separation left residues enriched in monazite, a mineral containing thorium and uranium, which gives off elevated gamma radiation. Some tailings were reportedly later used as fill around town.
- Thorium-232
- Uranium-238
- Radium & radon
- Gamma radiation
years is the half-life of thorium-232. Radioactive sand residues will not decay away on any human timescale; they have to be found and managed.
Fuel storage: service stations, depots & farm tanks
Towns and farmsCurrent and former service stations, council and transport depots, marinas, airports, farm bowsers, butter factories and hospitals with heating oil. Tanks and pipework corrode, and small leaks over decades add up.
- TRH
- Benzene
- Toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes
- Naphthalene
- PAHs
- Lead
Workshops, dry cleaners & light industry
Industrial estates & town centresMechanical workshops, panel beaters, spray painters, dry cleaners, printers, engineering works and boat builders, including in the Byron Arts and Industry Estate and Ballina's industrial areas.
- Waste oil
- PCE & TCE solvents
- Vinyl chloride
- Heavy metals
- PCBs
- TBT antifouling
Timber treatment, railways & power poles
Linear legaciesCopper chrome arsenate (CCA), pentachlorophenol and creosote preserved timber. The former Casino–Murwillumbah railway runs through Bangalow, Byron Bay and Mullumbimby, with creosoted sleepers, track herbicides, ash and clinker from steam engines, and fuel around yards and sidings. Old transformers can leak PCBs.
- Arsenic, chromium, copper
- Pentachlorophenol
- Creosote PAHs
- Dioxins
- PCBs
- Herbicides
Buildings, renovations & demolition
Older homes & shedsAsbestos was banned in Australia from 31 December 2003. Buildings constructed before 1990 are likely to contain some, in fibro, eaves, roofs, vinyl tiles and lagging.
Lead paint is common on homes painted before the 1970s; weathering and sanding leave lead-rich flakes in soil around walls and under floors. Organochlorine termiticides such as chlordane were injected around house footings until the mid-1990s, and residues persist in the soil around older homes.
- Asbestos
- Lead
- Chlordane
- Heptachlor
- Dieldrin
Fill, dumping, old tips & wastewater
The common surprisesImported fill can contain demolition waste, asbestos, ash, hydrocarbons, metals, mineral sand tailings and PFAS. Old council tips and farm rubbish pits produce leachate and landfill gas. Sewage treatment plants, effluent reuse areas, biosolids and failing on-site sewage systems can carry nutrients, pathogens, PFAS and microplastics to creeks, bores and oyster leases.
- Asbestos
- Metals
- Ash & PAHs
- Landfill gas
- Nutrients
- E. coli
- Microplastics
Firefighting foam & other PFAS sources
Forever chemicalsFire stations and training areas, airports, fuel depots with foam systems, sites of large fuel fires, landfills and biosolids areas. At Ballina Byron Gateway Airport, Airservices Australia's fire service began only after its 2010 switch to PFAS-free foam, so site history still needs checking for other foam use and fire training.
- PFOS
- PFHxS
- PFOA
- PFBS
- Precursors
Golf courses, shooting ranges & marinas
Recreation with a history- Golf & turf
- Historical arsenical herbicides and mercury fungicides, organochlorines and copper; maintenance-shed hotspots.
- Shooting ranges
- Lead and antimony in berms and target areas; PAHs from clay targets.
- Marinas
- Tributyltin, copper and zinc from antifouling paint; hydrocarbons in sediments.
The dose makes the poison, but persistence decides how long the dose is there.
A legacy timeline
When the chemicals stoppedWhen a chemical was used, and when it stopped, tells us what to test for on a site with a known history.
- 1955
Arsenic cattle dips end as ticks become resistant; DDT dips take over.
- 1962
DDT dips replaced by much less persistent tickicides.
- 1986
Agricultural use of DDT banned in Australia.
- 1987
Agricultural use of aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and chlordane restricted.
- 1994
Chlordane's registration for sub-floor termite treatment ends across much of Australia.
- 2002
Leaded petrol phased out in Australia.
- 2003
Asbestos banned from 31 December.
- 2009
PFOS listed under the Stockholm Convention; PFOA follows in 2019 and PFHxS in 2022.
- 2019
NSW councils take over regulation of most underground fuel tanks (1 September).
- 2025
PFAS NEMP 3.0 released; drinking water guideline values for PFAS revised.
Contaminants of concern
What they are & how they behaveMany of these are persistent organic pollutants (POPs): chemicals listed under the Stockholm Convention because they last for decades, build up in food chains and travel long distances.
Indicative behaviour: high low. Individual chemicals and sites vary.
Arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury
Elements that never break down. Arsenic is a known carcinogen; lead harms children's brain development with no known safe level; cadmium and mercury damage kidneys and nerves.
Dips, bananas, orchards, CCA, paint, petrol
Organochlorine pesticides
DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, endosulfan, lindane. Bind to soil and fat; concentrate in eggs, beef, fish and breast milk. Several are probable carcinogens.
Dips, bananas, cane, termite barriers
Organophosphates & carbamates
Ethion, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, carbaryl. Break down faster than organochlorines but are more acutely toxic to the nervous system.
Dips, horticulture
Herbicides
Atrazine, diuron, simazine, 2,4-D, glyphosate. Mostly a water-quality concern for creeks, estuaries, coastal lakes and oyster-growing waters.
Cane, horticulture, rail, turf
Petroleum hydrocarbons & BTEXN
TRH fractions plus benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes and naphthalene. Volatile and mobile; benzene is a known carcinogen.
Tanks, depots, workshops
PAHs
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzo(a)pyrene, from ash, tar, creosote, bitumen and heavy oils. Several are carcinogens.
Rail, fill, burning, creosote
Chlorinated solvents
PCE, TCE, dichloroethenes and vinyl chloride. Sink through groundwater, form long plumes and give off vapour.
Dry cleaners, workshops, printers
PCBs, dioxins & furans
PCBs from old transformers, capacitors and sealants; dioxins and furans from burning treated timber and plastics, and from pentachlorophenol.
Electrical gear, burn piles, timber treatment
PFAS
Thousands of synthetic fluorinated chemicals. PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS are listed POPs. Resist breakdown, move freely in water and accumulate in people and animals.
Firefighting foam, landfills, biosolids
Asbestos
Bonded (fibro), friable and fine fibrous forms. Low risk while intact and undisturbed; inhaled fibres cause mesothelioma, asbestosis and lung cancer decades later.
Old buildings, fill, demolition debris
NORM
Naturally occurring radioactive material: thorium, uranium and their decay products in monazite-rich sand residues. Main concern is external gamma radiation, plus dust and radon.
Mineral sand mining, tailings as fill
Microplastics
Particles under 5 mm from biosolids, compost, plastic mulch, tyre wear, synthetic fibres and stormwater. No Australian soil or water guideline values yet, so assessment is descriptive.
Biosolids, stormwater, wastewater
What we test for
Matched to each site's historyWe match testing to each site's history, so you pay for the analysis that answers your question rather than a blanket list. Samples go to NATA-accredited laboratories under chain of custody, with duplicates, blanks and spikes for quality control.
Our analytical suites
| Suite | What it covers | Media |
|---|---|---|
| Heavy metals | Arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc, plus extended metals | Soil, sediment, water |
| OCP / OPP | Organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides incl. DDT/DDD/DDE, dieldrin, heptachlor, chlordane, ethion | Soil, sediment, water |
| Herbicides | Triazines, phenoxy acids, diuron; glyphosate on request | Soil, water |
| TRH / BTEXN | Petroleum fractions plus benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, naphthalene | Soil, groundwater, soil vapour |
| PAHs | 16 priority PAHs incl. benzo(a)pyrene toxic equivalents | Soil, sediment, water |
| VOCs / SVOCs | Chlorinated solvents and other volatile and semi-volatile organics | Groundwater, vapour, soil |
| PCBs | Total and congener PCBs | Soil, sediment, oils |
| PFAS | Extended suite incl. PFOS, PFHxS, PFOA, PFBS and precursors; TOP assay on request | Soil, water, sediment, concrete, biota |
| Asbestos | Presence/absence by microscopy; gravimetric quantification of bonded and friable asbestos | Soil, fill, materials |
| Radiation | Gamma dose-rate survey; laboratory radionuclides | Soil, fill, sand |
| Acid sulfate soils | Field pH screening and chromium reducible sulfur suite | Soil, sediment |
| Water quality | pH, conductivity, nitrogen, phosphorus, metals, E. coli and microbiology | Bores, dams, tanks, creeks |
| Microplastics | Particle counts, size classes and polymer identification via specialist laboratories | Soil, sediment, water, biosolids |
Matching tests to land use
| Former use | Core analysis | Often added |
|---|---|---|
| Cattle dip | Arsenic, OCPs, ethion | Other metals, groundwater, dam sediments |
| Banana plantation | Arsenic, OCPs (dieldrin, DDT, heptachlor) | Copper, zinc, lead; packing shed hotspots |
| Cane / floodplain | OCPs, metals, herbicides | Acid sulfate soils, drain sediments, fuel |
| Orchards & market gardens | Metals (As, Pb, Cu, Zn, Hg), OCPs, OPPs | Herbicides; chemical shed hotspots |
| Dairy / grazing | Metals, OCPs, OPPs near yards | TRH/BTEXN, asbestos, nutrients |
| Mineral sand mining | Gamma survey, radionuclides | Metals, asbestos in imported fill |
| Service station / fuel tank | TRH, BTEXN, PAHs, lead | Groundwater wells, soil vapour |
| Workshop / industrial | TRH, BTEXN, PAHs, metals, VOCs | PCBs, PFAS, groundwater |
| Dry cleaner | Chlorinated VOCs | Soil vapour, groundwater, indoor air |
| Timber treatment / poles | As, Cr, Cu, PAHs, PCP | Dioxins and furans |
| Railway corridor | Metals, PAHs, TRH, herbicides, OCPs | Asbestos, ash and clinker |
| Old buildings | Asbestos, lead, OCPs | PAHs and metals in ash |
| Imported fill / dumping | Metals, TRH, PAHs, OCPs, asbestos | PFAS, radiation, PCBs |
| Landfill / old tip | Metals, TRH, PAHs, nutrients, landfill gas | PFAS, VOCs, asbestos |
| Fire station / airport / depot | PFAS, TRH, BTEXN | Groundwater, surface water, biota |
| Wastewater & biosolids | Nutrients, microbiology, metals | PFAS, microplastics |
| Boatyard / marina | TBT, copper, zinc, TRH, PAHs | Sediments |
| Golf course / turf | Arsenic, mercury, copper, OCPs, herbicides | Maintenance shed hotspots |
| Shooting range | Lead, antimony | Copper, zinc, PAHs |
Our investigation process
Staged, proportionate, defensibleWe follow the staged approach of the ASC NEPM and NSW EPA guidelines. Many sites are cleared at the first stage; only sites with real contamination go on to remediation.
- Preliminary Site Investigation (PSI). Historical aerial photographs, title and council records, EPA and DPI registers, interviews and a site walkover build a conceptual site model.
- Detailed Site Investigation (DSI). A sampling, analysis and quality plan, then soil, fill, groundwater, vapour or sediment sampling compared with criteria for the proposed land use.
- Remedial Action Plan (RAP). Where criteria are exceeded: excavation and licensed disposal, containment and capping, vertical mixing where permitted, or treatment.
- Validation. Supervised remediation and sampling to prove the site meets its targets, reported to council. Some sites need a long-term environmental management plan.
Living safely on Northern Rivers land
Everyday exposure reductionMost risks from legacy contamination are managed with simple habits while you get proper advice.
Gardens & food
- Use raised beds of clean imported soil on old dip, banana, orchard or house sites.
- Leafy greens and root crops take up more metals than fruiting crops.
- Wash and peel produce; wash hands after gardening.
- Keep grass or mulch over bare soil.
Chooks & stock
- Keep poultry runs away from suspected hotspots, or on clean soil; eggs concentrate organochlorines and PFAS.
- Fence stock away from old dip baths and yards.
Tank, bore & dam water
- Clean roofs, gutters and first-flush devices; avoid lead-flashed or lead-painted roofs.
- Test bores before drinking and periodically after.
- Test dams that receive runoff from dips, sheds or orchards.
Renovating & building
- Test pre-1990 buildings for asbestos and old paint for lead before sanding, cutting or demolishing.
- Use licensed asbestos removalists.
- Ask for a VENM or ENM certificate for any fill.
After floods
- Treat flood silt as potentially contaminated.
- Wear gloves and a P2 mask when cleaning up.
- Have tanks and bores checked before use.
Do you need an assessment?
- You are subdividing, rezoning or changing rural or industrial land to housing, a school, childcare or aged care.
- The land was ever a banana plantation, orchard, cane farm, dairy or cattle dip site, or was sand mined.
- There is, or was, a fuel tank, workshop, depot, dry cleaner, tip or railway siding on or next to the site.
- Council has asked for a Preliminary Site Investigation, or your planning certificate carries a contamination notation.
- You are buying rural or commercial land and want to understand the risk before settlement.
- Old buildings, imported fill or buried waste are present.
- You plan to grow food, keep chickens or drink bore or dam water on land with any of these histories.
How we can help
Contaminated land servicesByron Environmental Consulting prepares contaminated land investigations and environmental health advice for landowners, buyers, builders, developers and councils across the Byron and Ballina Shires and the wider Northern Rivers.
Preliminary Site Investigations
Site history, records review and walkover for development applications and property purchases.
Detailed Site Investigations
Soil, groundwater, vapour and sediment sampling with NATA-accredited laboratory analysis.
Remediation & validation
Remedial Action Plans, supervision of clean-up and validation reporting for council.
Cattle dip & farmland assessments
Dip sites, banana plantations, orchards, cane and dairy land before subdivision or building.
Asbestos in soil & fill
Assessment of fibro fragments, demolition debris and imported fill.
Fuel tanks & PFAS
Underground petroleum storage systems, depots, workshops and firefighting foam sources.
Mineral sands radiation
Gamma surveys and sampling for land that may have been sand mined or filled with tailings.
Water & acid sulfate soils
Bore, tank and dam water testing, and acid sulfate soil assessment and management plans.
On-site sewage management
Wastewater assessments and reports for septic and treatment systems on rural land.
Where we work
Byron Shire
- Byron Bay
- Suffolk Park
- Bangalow
- Mullumbimby
- Brunswick Heads
- Ocean Shores
- Ewingsdale
- Federal
- Main Arm
- Myocum
Ballina Shire
- Ballina
- Lennox Head
- Skennars Head
- Alstonville
- Wollongbar
- Cumbalum
- Tintenbar
- Wardell
- Teven
We also work across the wider Northern Rivers region of NSW.
Landowner questions
Frequently askedHow do I find out if my property was a cattle dip site?
Start with the NSW DPI Cattle Dip Site Locator, which maps known dip sites. Old concrete baths, yards and fence lines also show clearly in historical aerial photographs. A Preliminary Site Investigation combines these records with a site walkover to confirm whether a dip, or its buried sludge pit, is on or near your land.
Do I need a contamination report for a development application in Byron or Ballina Shire?
Councils must consider contamination under Chapter 4 of State Environmental Planning Policy (Resilience and Hazards) 2021. If you are subdividing, rezoning or changing land to a more sensitive use such as housing, and the land has a history like bananas, dips, fuel storage or sand mining, council will usually ask for a Preliminary Site Investigation. Byron Shire Council also requires a Contaminated Land Summary Table with every contamination report.
What is a Preliminary Site Investigation (PSI)?
A PSI is the first stage of a contaminated land assessment. It reviews historical aerial photographs, title and council records, EPA and DPI registers and a site walkover to build a conceptual site model. It identifies whether contamination is likely and whether sampling is needed. Many sites are cleared at this stage.
Is it safe to grow vegetables on a former banana plantation or dip site?
Often yes, with sensible precautions, but test first. Arsenic and dieldrin concentrate in the top 75 to 150 mm of soil on former banana land. Until soil is tested, grow vegetables in raised beds of clean imported soil, wash and peel produce, and keep chickens away from suspected hotspots.
Does a section 10.7 planning certificate tell me if my land is contaminated?
Only partly. A planning certificate records contamination that council already knows about. Most old dip sites, banana slopes and farm fuel tanks have never been investigated, so a certificate with no notation says little about the ground itself.
Should I test my bore or tank water?
Test bore water before drinking it and periodically after, particularly shallow coastal bores near septic systems, fuel storage or farmland. For roof tanks, keep roofs, gutters and first-flush devices clean and avoid collecting drinking water from lead-flashed or lead-painted roofs.
What happens if contamination is found on my land?
It is rarely the end of a project. A Remedial Action Plan sets clean-up targets and options such as excavation and licensed disposal, capping and containment, or vertical mixing of low-level agricultural residues where permitted. Validation sampling then shows council the land is suitable for its proposed use.
Could my land have radioactive mineral sand?
Parts of the Byron Shire coast were mined for heavy mineral sands, leaving residues enriched in monazite, which contains thorium and uranium. Byron Shire Council requires a specialist investigation, including a gamma radiation survey, before land that may have been mined is subdivided or developed.
What is PFAS and do I need to test for it?
PFAS are long-lasting synthetic chemicals used in firefighting foam and many products. Testing is worth considering near fire stations and training areas, airports, fuel depots, landfills, sewage treatment plants and land where biosolids were applied. Australia updated its PFAS guidance in 2025 with PFAS NEMP 3.0.
What should I do if I find something unusual during earthworks?
Stop work if you uncover odours, stained soil, buried drums or tanks, ash, fibro fragments or unusual dark sands. Fence off the area and contact an environmental consultant or council. Most development consents include an unexpected finds protocol.
Taisa Baars
Taisa is the Environmental Health Scientist and Principal of Byron Environmental Consulting. She prepares contaminated land investigations, on-site sewage management reports and environmental health advice for landowners and councils across the Northern Rivers, with a focus on clear, practical science that protects people and Country.
Guidelines & resources
Further reading- Byron Shire CouncilContaminated land, UPSS & sand mining
- Ballina Shire CouncilPolicy C12 Management of Contaminated Land (2024)
- NSW DPICattle Dip Site Locator
- NSW DPIArsenic and DDT residues at cattle dip yards
- NSW EPAGuidelines for Assessing Banana Plantation Sites
- NSW EPAGuidelines for Assessing Former Orchards and Market Gardens
- NSW EPAContaminated agricultural land
- NSW EPAUnderground petroleum storage systems
- NSW EPAPosition statement on PFAS NEMP 3.0
- Airservices AustraliaNational PFAS Management Program
- NationalASC NEPM 1999, as amended 2013
- NHMRCAustralian Drinking Water Guidelines, PFAS fact sheet (June 2025)